A.V. Kutishenko, Ph.D.

South Ural State University (National Research University), Chelyabinsk

Keywords: alexithymia, risk factors, sports activity.

Introduction. Alexithymia is a dysfunction of the emotional-cognitive sphere as a certain set of disturbances of affective functions and disorders of cognitive processes [10]. According to the concept of alexithymic personality, emotional inexpressiveness causes a conflict situation in the interpersonal sphere and emotional stress is transformed into pathological physiological responses [12], which in turn can result in a number of diseases.

In the literature of the last decades the problem of alexithymia has been considered in view of psychology and psychotherapy, sociology and psychophysiology, or as a clinical phenomenon in the framework of psychosomatic illnesses [4, 8, 11]. However, according to the analysis of the literature information, the coverage of the poorly studied aspect of the problem as the relation of alexithymia and type of activity is relevant and in demand today.

The radical of alexithymia in the structure of athlete's personality is a major reason for the failure in adaptation to the extreme conditions of modern sport, which is shown by the presence of psychosomatic illnesses, traumatism and failure performances at competitions [5]. All this leads to a loss of professional perspectives. The studies of the researchers have shown that alexithymia is more popular and pronounced among athletes rather than among those not involved in sports [6]. In this regard, it is of particular interest to detect the factors associated with sports activity, causing the development of this phenomenon in athletes, which was the purpose of the present study.

Materials and methods. The study involved 129 athletes of different specializations and qualifications (Candidate for Masters of Sports and Masters of Sports - 45, competitive athletes - 43, those involved in mass sports - 41) aged 17-24 years. Emotional-cognitive sphere of the athletes was studied with the help of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS). Athletes who scored 74 or more points on the TAS were considered «alexithymic». The survey that included questionnaires and interviews was the main method of studying risk factors of alexithymia. Statistical processing of the study results was carried out with the help of Statistica 6,0 software package using parametric (Student’s t-test) and nonparametric (Mann-Whitney test, χ² test, Fischer’s variance ratio) methods. The nonparametric method of Spearman’s correlation analysis was used while studying the relationship between indicators.

Results and discussion. Correlation analysis revealed a significant relationship between the level of intensity of alexithymia and the age at which athletes started their sports training (r=-0.27; p<0.05), between the level of alexithymia and the duration of sports training (r=0.46; p<0.05).

In a comparative analysis of the prevalence of alexithymia among athletes of different qualifications it was noted that 17.1% had alexithymia among the unqualified athletes, 23.3% of qualified and 40% of highly qualified ones. At the same time its intensity level was 60.9±1.7, 64.9±1.5 and 68.8±1.6 points, respectively. Statistically significant differences (p<0.01) were identified between the indicators of frequency and those of intensity of disorders of the emotional-cognitive sphere of unqualified and highly qualified athletes (Figure 1).

Thus, the earlier an individual starts training, the longer this activity lasts and the higher athlete’s qualification is and the more pronounced his alexithymic radical is. The data obtained serves as an indirect evidence of the existing factors associated with sports activity that had contributed to the formation and/or development of alexithymia in athletes.

Figure 1. Number of persons with alexithymia (%) and its level (points) among athletes of different qualifications.

During further studies the athletes were divided into subgroups depending on the studied factors.  Their characteristics are presented in Table 1.                                                                                                                                        

Table 1. Athletes’ characteristics depending on the factors of sports activity

Sports activity, especially professional, is a major component of athletes’ lives, as they spend much of their time training, in training camps and competitions. In this regard, psychological climate in a sports team can have a great impact on their emotional-cognitive sphere. Thus, 50.9% of athletes from the teams with adverse psychological climate had alexithymia in their personality structure, while only 9.5% of athletes from the teams with favorable climate suffered from it; the level of alexithymia was 72.1±1.2 and 59.6±1.1 points, respectively (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Number of persons with alexithymia (%) and its level (points) among athletes from teams with favorable and unfavorable psychological climate.

According to some authors [1], psychological climate in a sports team depends primarily on the leadership style of the trainer who should be able to optimally manage activities of athletes. In accordance with the generally accepted classification the major styles of trainer’s professional activity were identified that took place in case of the examined athletes.

Democratic style – athlete is considered an equal partner in communication, training and competitive activity. Trainer involves athletes in decision-making, takes their points of view into account, encourages independence of judgement as not only sports achievements of the athletes, but also their personal qualities are important for him. In order to avoid negative aspects in the athletes’ relationship the trainer employing this style of guidance is constantly monitoring the dynamics of these relations and takes the necessary measures in time in case of increasing conflicts and psychological tension in the team.

Authoritarian style – trainer treats athlete as a machine designed for the implementation of his ambitious plans. The trainer of this type usually has a decreased reflection level, introspection and self-control. All decisions are made by him personally, he imposes strict control over the fulfillment of his demands without taking into account athletes’ points of view and the relationship between the team members. As a result, the athletes are aggressive, their self-esteem is reduced and athletic activity is lost.  All their efforts are directed at psychological self-defense.

Liberal style – trainer tries to move away from decision-making, giving the initiative to athletes. Actions of such trainer are irresolute, frequently hesitant. Organization and supervision of athletes’ activity are spontaneous, that leading to latent conflicts between athletes and an unstable microclimate in a sports team [2].

Trainer’s democratic leadership style was noted by 57.4% of respondents, most of them (82.4%) were positive towards their trainer (Figure 3) and marked the favorable psychological climate in the team (Figure 4).

Figure 3. Attitude of athletes to their trainer in case of different styles of his professional activity

37.2% of respondents had trainers with the authoritarian style, among them: 43.8% felt anxiety and fear towards their trainer, 20.8% were negative towards him and 14.6% regarded him as an idol. Only 12.5% and 8.3% mentioned fearless and positive attitude to their trainer, respectively (Figure 3). 77.1% of athletes noted unfavorable climate in the team with this style of leadership (Figure 4).

Figure 4. The ratio of the number of athletes that reported favorable and unfavorable psychological climate in the team depending on the leadership style of the trainer

5.4% of athletes had a trainer with the liberal style of activity, 71.4% of them treated their trainer indifferently, and 28.6% – negatively (Figure 3). The majority of respondents (71.4%) mentioned the unfavorable psychological climate in the team (Figure 4).

Figure 5. Number of persons with alexithymia (%) and its level (points) among athletes having trainers of different leadership styles

With the democratic leadership style of the trainer in place 14.9% of athletes had alexithymia, the number with the authoritarian one was 43.8%, with the liberal one - 42.9%. The level of alexithymia in these cases was 60.2±1.1, 71.0±1.4 and 74.4±1.6 points, respectively (Figure 5). Statistical analysis of the obtained data showed that among athletes whose trainers have authoritarian and liberal styles of professional activity alexithymia is marked (p<0.01) more frequently and intensively compared with athletes that had trainers with the democratic style.

In case of the trainer having the authoritarian leadership style the athlete’s creative initiative is suppressed, in case of the liberal one his abilities to find his way to mastery are limited or overlooked.  Thus, the trainer does not only make his athletes incapable in sport, especially in elite sport, but also inhibits the development of their minds and personalities in general by having a negative impact on their emotional-cognitive sphere. Two-people relationships, when one of them has more experience and the other - more abilities, are much more productive in sports activity. It is this style of cooperation based on close emotional contact of a trainer with an athlete, trust and mutual understanding, that ensures psychological health of athletes and promotes their personal growth.

There is research that testifies to certain psychophysiological characteristics of representatives of different sports. Some authors [9] point out that representatives of game sports are characterized by high emotionality and increased requirements to the «creative» brain function. Other authors note that combat athletes, regardless of the duration of their training activity, have operational and tactical thinking as well as an increased level of anxiety, as they count only on themselves and their power during competitions [7]. In this regard, psychological specificity of sport may have a certain impact on the emotional-cognitive sphere of athletes. 

Psychological specificity of sport was determined in accordance with the systematics of sports developed by T.T. Dzhamgarov (2002) that reflects the nature of the interaction of athletes during competitive activity: confrontation towards their opponents and interaction with their partners.

Confrontation (competition) is characterized by a direct or indirect psychological (or, perhaps, physical) contact between athletes and the conflict nature of relationships. It may have varying degrees of intensity that depends on the sport’s specificity, the importance of competitions and individual psychological characteristics of athletes-participants.

Interaction proceeds as cooperation, mutual assistance, support, negotiation and coordination of joint efforts. The effectiveness of the interaction depends on the relevant skills, compatibility of athletes, their cohesion and psychological climate in the team [3].

The «confrontation» group included athletes-representatives of boxing, oriental martial arts, gymnastics, athletics, swimming, skating and skiing. The «interaction» group included athletes of team sports representing football, hockey, basketball, volleyball and water polo (Table 1). 30.3% had alexithymia in their personality structure in the first group, 20% - in the second group, but statistically the differences were insignificant (Figure 6). At the same time, the level of alexithymia in the first group was significantly higher than in the second one - 66.3±1.1 and 62.0±1.9 points, respectively (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Number of persons with alexithymia (%) and its level (points) among athletes depending on the psychological specificity of sport

Conclusion. Based on the analysis of the findings, adverse psychological climate in a team, liberal and authoritarian leadership styles of the coach can be attributed to the factors contributing to the formation and/ or development of alexithymia in athletes. In the authors' opinion, psychological specificity of specific sport in the form of confrontation can be a negative factor for the emotional cognitive sphere only in the case when an athlete does not handle the methods of self-regulation of his emotional state. This may be due to the unsatisfactory work of his coach and sports doctor, or the result of the lack of a sports psychologist in the teams of elite athletes, which are distinguished by high physical and psychoemotional stress.

Thus, the syndrome of alexithymia in a modern Russian athlete is a sign of distress in the sports team. Identified negative factors not only lead to violations of the emotional-cognitive sphere, but put an athlete on the verge of the psychological risk of the development of psychosomatic disorders. Only risk factors prevention, timely diagnosis and correction of alexithymia can prevent violations of somatic health of athletes, thus helping to improve the quality and length of their professional activity.

References

1. Vechkanova, S.V. Psychological climate in team sports // Sportivny psikholog. – 2007. – № 1. – P. 43-48. (In Russian)
2. Gogunov, E.N. Psychology of physical education and sport / E.N. Gogunov, B.I. Mart'yanov. – Мoscow: Academia, 2004. –  224 P. (In Russian)
3. Dzhamgarov, T.T. Psychological systematization of sports and competitive exercises // Sport Psychology in the works of domestic experts: reader / comp. and e. by I.P. Volkov. – St. Petersburg: Piter, 2002. – P. 14-21. (In Russian)
4. Isaev, D.N. Emotional stress, psychosomatic and somatopsychic disorders in children. – St. Petersburg: Rech', 2005. – 400 P. (In Russian)
5. Kutishenko, A.V. Psychosomatic disorders, alexithymia and sports activity / A.V. Kutishenko, I.V. Shadrina // Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kultury. – 2008. – № 4. – P. 35–38, 55–56. (In Russian)
6. Kutishenko, A.V. Psychophysical correction of stress functional disorders caused by dysfunction of emotional cognition in athletes // Fizkul'tura v profilaktike, lechenii i reabilitatsii. – Мoscow, 2011. – № 1-2 (36-37). – P. 30–35. (In Russian)
7. Rybchinsky, V.P. Psychophysiological features of representatives of various sports in pre-season: Ph.D. thesis. - Rostov-on-Don, 2000. – 147 P. (In Russian)
8. Sidorov, P.I. Psychosomatic medicine: doctor's guide / P.I. Sidorov, A.G. Solov'ev, I.A. Novikova. – Мoscow: MEDpress-inform, 2006. – 568 P. (In Russian)
9. Skvortsov, M.V. Some psychological characteristics of basketball and rugby players // Teoriya i praktika fizicheskoy kultury. – 1997. – № 4. – P. 55–56. (In Russian)
10. Urvantsev, L.P. Psychology in somatic clinical picture. - Yaroslavl: YaSU, 1998. – 160 P. (In Russian)
11. Khvatova, M.V. State of cognitive-emotional sphere as a factor of psychosomatic health of students / M.V. Khvatova, T.V. Yur’eva // Valelogiya. – 2003. – № 2. – P. 39-43. (In Russian)
12. Sifneos, P.E. The prevalence of alexithymic characteristics in psychosomatic patients / P.E. Sifneos // Psychother Psychosom. – 1973. – Vol. 22. – № 2. – P. 255-262.

Corresponding author: avkutishenko@yandex.ru